🥒 👊🏾 〰️ Pilihan matematika atau model Black-Scholes 📀 ✍️ ⬜️

Kepentingan umum dalam model Black-Scholes (selanjutnya - BS) adalah karena fakta bahwa pada suatu waktu penulisnya merevolusi bidang penilaian nilai wajar opsi dan instrumen keuangan derivatif lainnya. Kemudian mereka menerima Hadiah Nobel atas penemuan mereka, dan rumus analitis yang mereka peroleh menjadi, mungkin, yang paling mendasar dan terkenal di dunia keuangan.

Model BS tidak kurang menarik dari sudut pandang analisis matematis dan probabilistik-teoritis tingkat rendah. Artikel ini membahas secara rinci proses pembuktian prinsip-prinsip dasar dan utama model BS, dan juga menyimpulkan rumus analitis yang digunakan untuk menilai nilai wajar opsi.

Konsep dasar

Opsi - kontrak di mana pembeli opsi menerima hak , tetapi bukan kewajiban, untuk membeli atau menjual aset tertentu pada harga yang ditentukan sebelumnya, yang disebut harga kesepakatan atau kesepakatan.

Untuk keperluan analisis lebih lanjut, instrumen keuangan semacam itu paling tepat direpresentasikan sebagai fungsi yang menggambarkan pembayaran opsi pada saat kontrak berakhir. Untuk pemahaman yang lebih sederhana dan intuitif, kami akan mempertimbangkan opsi dari jenis Panggilan, fungsi pembayarannya adalah sebagai berikut.

di mana harga aset yang mendasari, harga pemogokan.

Dari sudut pandang praktis, fungsi tersebut mengasumsikan bahwa pembeli opsi akan mendapatkan keuntungan jika harga aset yang mendasari melebihi harga kesepakatan x_s dan yang bertepatan dengan perbedaannya [x-x_s] . Jika tidak, pemegang opsi akan menerima kerugian sebesar premi yang dibayarkan untuk membeli kontrak opsi.

, . , . , , ( ).

, C = maks (x - x_s; 0) , , , , .

, , , . , .

, C = maks (x - x_s; 0) x (t) . , x (t) , : $dx = xrdt + x \ sigma \ delta W.$ *. , .

$dC = \left(\frac{\partial C}{\partial t} + xr\frac{\partial C}{\partial x} + \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial x^2}\right)dt + x\sigma\frac{\partial C}{\partial x} \delta W \qquad (1)$

, . (1) , . - .

$\Pi = \frac{\partial C}{\partial x} \cdot x - C(x, t) \qquad (2)$

, $\Delta = \frac{\partial C}{\partial x}$ - .

, , $\Delta = const$ - : $d \Pi = \Delta \cdot dx - dC$ . , , *, (1) . :

$d \Pi = \Delta(xrdt + x\sigma \delta W) - \left [ \left(\frac{\partial C}{\partial t} + xr\frac{\partial C}{\partial x} + \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial x^2}\right)dt + x\sigma\frac{\partial C}{\partial x} \delta W \right ] \qquad (3)$

, $\Delta = \frac{\partial C}{\partial x}$ , $x\sigma\frac{\partial C}{\partial x} \delta W$ :

$d \Pi = - \left [\frac{\partial C}{\partial t} + \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial x^2}\right]dt \qquad (4)$

, . $\tau$ , $\tau = T-t$ , . , , $\tau$ , . , : $\frac{\partial C}{\partial t } = - \frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau }$ .

B,S - : $d \Pi = \Pi rdt$ , . (4) , $\Pi$ (2) .

$\frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau }dt - \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial x^2}dt =\left( \frac{\partial C}{\partial x} \cdot x - C(x, t) \right ) rdt$

, :

$\frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau } + rC = \frac{\sigma^2 x^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial x^2} + rx\frac{\partial C}{\partial x } \qquad (5)$

, . , , , .

. $y = \ln x$ . x^2 , .

, , x^2 , :

$\frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau } + rC = \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial y^2} + R\frac{\partial C}{\partial y } \qquad (6)$

$R = r - \frac{\sigma^2}{2}$

, $y = \ln x$

$\frac{\partial C}{\partial x} = \frac{\partial C}{\partial y} \cdot \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{\partial C}{\partial y} \cdot \frac{1}{x}$

, $y = \ln x$

$\frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial x^2} =\left ( \frac{\partial C}{\partial y} \cdot \frac{dy}{dx}\right )_x '= (\frac{\partial C}{\partial y})_x '\cdot \frac{dy}{dx} + \frac{\partial C}{\partial y} \cdot (\frac{dy}{dx})_x' = \left( (\frac{\partial C}{\partial y})_y' \cdot y'\right ) \cdot y'+ \frac{\partial C}{\partial y} \cdot y'' =$ $= \left( \frac{\partial^2 C}{\partial y^2} \frac{1}{x}\right ) \frac{1}{x} - \frac{\partial C}{\partial y} \frac{1}{x^2} = \frac{1}{x^2}\left ( \frac{\partial^2 C}{\partial y^2} - \frac{\partial C}{\partial y}\right )$

$\frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau } + rC = \frac{\sigma^2 x^2}{2} \cdot \frac{1}{x^2}\left ( \frac{\partial^2 C}{\partial y^2} - \frac{\partial C}{\partial y}\right ) + rx \cdot \frac{1}{x} \frac{\partial C}{\partial y} \Leftrightarrow \frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau } + rC = \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \left( \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial y^2} -\frac{\partial C}{\partial y } \right )+ r\frac{\partial C}{\partial y }$

$\frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau } + rC = \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \left( \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial y^2} -\frac{\partial C}{\partial y } \right )+ r\frac{\partial C}{\partial y } \Rightarrow_1 \frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau } + rC = \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial y^2} - \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial C}{\partial y } + r\frac{\partial C}{\partial y } \Rightarrow_2$ $\frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau } + rC = \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial y^2} + (r - \frac{\sigma^2}{2}) \frac{\partial C}{\partial y } \Rightarrow_3 \frac{\partial C}{\partial \tau } + rC = \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 C}{\partial y^2} + R\frac{\partial C}{\partial y }$

$R = r - \frac{\sigma^2}{2}$

, . : $C(e^y, \tau) = e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \cdot U(y, \tau)$ , $\alpha$ $\beta$ , , :

$\frac{\partial U}{\partial \tau } = \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 U}{\partial y^2} \qquad (7)$

$Ue^{\alpha y + \beta \tau}$

$\left (U e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right )_\tau ' + rUe^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} = \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \left (U e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right )_{yy} '' + R\left (U e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right )_y ' \qquad (*)$

$\tau$

$\left (U e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right )_\tau ' = \frac{\partial U}{\partial \tau} \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} + U \cdot \left ( e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right )_\tau ' = \frac{\partial U}{\partial \tau} \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} + \beta U \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau}$

$\left (U e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right )_y ' = \frac{\partial U}{\partial y} \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} + U \cdot \left ( e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right )_y ' = \frac{\partial U}{\partial y} \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} + \alpha U \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau}$

$\left( { \frac{\partial U}{\partial y}} \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} + \alpha U \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right)_y '= \left( { \frac{\partial U}{\partial y}} \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right)_y' + \left (\alpha U \cdot e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right )_y' =$ $\left( { \frac{\partial^2 U}{\partial y^2}}e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} + \alpha \frac{\partial U}{\partial y} e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \right) + \left ( \alpha \frac{\partial U}{\partial y} e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} + \alpha^2 U e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau}\right ) =$ $e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \left( \frac{\partial^2 U}{\partial y^2} + 2\alpha \frac{\partial U}{\partial y} + \alpha^2 U \right)$

$e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau}$

$\frac{\partial U}{\partial \tau} + \beta U + rU = \frac{\sigma^2}{2}\left( \frac{\partial^2 U}{\partial y^2} + 2\alpha \frac{\partial U}{\partial y} + \alpha^2 U \right) + R\left ( \frac{\partial U}{\partial y} + aU \right )$

$\alpha = -\frac{R}{\sigma^2}$ , $\beta = -(r + \frac{R^2}{2 \sigma^2})$ , :

$\frac{\partial U}{\partial \tau} - (r + \frac{1}{2}\frac{R^2}{\sigma^2}) U + rU = \frac{\sigma^2}{2}\left( \frac{\partial^2 U}{\partial y^2} - \frac {2R}{\sigma^2} \frac{\partial U}{\partial y} + \frac{R^2}{\sigma^4} U \right) + R\left ( \frac{\partial U}{\partial y} - \frac{R}{ \sigma^2}U \right )$

$\frac{\partial U}{\partial \tau } = \frac{\sigma^2}{2} \frac{\partial ^2 U}{\partial y^2}$

(7) :

$P(y, \tau, y_0) = \frac{1}{\sigma \sqrt{2 \pi \tau }} \cdot \exp(-\frac{(y-y_0)^2}{2\sigma^2 \tau}) \qquad (8)$

$(P)_\tau '$ , $(P)_{yy} ''$ (7) .

$e^{*} = \exp(-\frac{(y-y_0)^2}{2\sigma^2 \tau})$

$\tau$ :

$\frac{\partial P}{\partial \tau} = \left (\frac{1}{\sigma \sqrt{2 \pi \tau }} \right )_ \tau ' \cdot e^{*} + \frac{1}{\sigma \sqrt{2 \pi \tau }} \cdot \left (\exp(-\frac{(y-y_0)^2}{2\sigma^2 \tau}) \right )_\tau ' =$ $- \frac{1}{2\sigma \tau \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} \cdot e^{*} + \frac{1}{\sigma \sqrt{2\pi \tau}}\cdot e^{*} \cdot \frac{(y-y_0)^2}{2\sigma^2 \tau^2} = e^{*} \left (\frac{(y-y_0)^2}{2 \sigma^3 \tau^2 \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} - \frac{1}{2\sigma \tau \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} \right )$

$\frac{\partial P}{\partial y} = \frac{1}{\sigma \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} \cdot (e^{*})_y' = - \frac{1}{\sigma \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} \cdot e^{*} \cdot \frac{(y-y_0)}{ \sigma^2 \tau} \Rightarrow$ $\frac{\partial^2 P}{\partial y^2} = \left (- \frac{1}{\sigma \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} \cdot e^{*} \cdot \frac{(y-y_0)}{\sigma^2 \tau} \right )_y' = \left (- \frac{1}{\sigma^3 \tau \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} \cdot \left ( e^{*} \cdot (y-y_0) \right ) \right )_y' =$ $- \frac{1}{\sigma^3 \tau \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} \cdot \left[\left( e^{*} \cdot (-\frac{(y-y_0)}{\sigma^2 \tau}) \cdot (y-y_0) \right ) + e^{*} \cdot 1\right] = e^{*} \cdot \left (\frac{(y-y_0)^2}{\sigma^5 \tau^2 \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} - \frac{1}{\sigma^3 \tau \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} \right )$

(7) e^* . :

$\frac{(y-y_0)^2}{2 \sigma^3 \tau^2 \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} - \frac{1}{2\sigma \tau \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} = \frac{\sigma^2}{2}\left (\frac{(y-y_0)^2}{\sigma^5 \tau^2 \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} - \frac{1}{\sigma^3 \tau \sqrt{2\pi \tau}} \right )$

, u(s) :

$\int_ {-\infty}^{+\infty} u(s) P(y, \tau, s)ds,$

$\tau$ , (7) , - . , (7) :

$U(y, \tau) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} u(s) P(y, \tau, s)ds =\frac{1}{\sigma \sqrt{2 \pi \tau }} \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} u(s) \cdot \exp \left(-\frac{(y-s)^2}{2\sigma^2 \tau}\right)ds \qquad (9)$

(9) u(s) . , u(y) = U(y;0) . - , $\tau \mapsto 0$ - $\delta (y-s)$ :

$U(y; 0) = \int _{-\infty}^{+\infty}u(s) \delta (y-s)ds = u(y)$

: f(x) [a;b] , g(x) , $c \in[a,b]$ , :

$\int_{a}^{b} f(x)g(x) dx = f(c) \int_{a}^{b}g(x)dx$

$\varepsilon > 0$ .

$\tau \mapsto 0$ "" $\int_{-\infty}^{y- \varepsilon }, \int_{y-\varepsilon }^{+\infty}$ :

$U(y, \tau) \approx \int_{y- \varepsilon}^{y+ \varepsilon} u(s) P(y, \tau, s)ds$

$d \in [y-\varepsilon; y+\varepsilon ]$ ,

$\int_{y- \varepsilon}^{y+ \varepsilon} u(s) P(y, \tau, s)ds = u(d) \int_{y- \varepsilon}^{y+ \varepsilon} P(y, \tau, s)ds.$

, $\lim_{\tau \mapsto 0} \int_{y- \varepsilon}^{y+ \varepsilon} P(y, \tau, s)ds = 1$ , $u(d) \int_{y- \varepsilon}^{y+ \varepsilon} P(y, \tau, s)ds \approx u(d)$ . , $\varepsilon >0$ , $\tau \mapsto 0$ , $d \mapsto y$ . :

$u(y) = U(y;0) = e^{-\alpha y}\cdot C(e^{y}; 0) = e^{-\alpha y} \cdot \max (e^y -x_s;0)$

, $\max (e^y -x_s;0)=0$ $y < \ln x_s$ , (9) :

$U(y, \tau) = \int_{\ln x_s}^{+\infty} (e^s - x_s)\frac{e^{-\alpha s}}{\sigma \sqrt{2 \pi \tau}} \exp\left(-\frac{(y-s)^2}{2 \sigma^2 \tau}\right)ds \qquad (10)$

(10) $U(y;\tau)$ , , $C(e^y, \tau) = e^{\alpha y + \beta \tau} \cdot U(y, \tau)$ . , $U(y, \tau)$ $C(e^y, \tau)$ .

(10) .

, -:

$C = x_0F \left [ \frac{\ln(xe^{r\tau} / x_s)}{\sigma \sqrt{\tau}} + \frac{\sigma \sqrt{\tau}}{2} \right ] - x_se^{-r\tau}F \left [ \frac{\ln(xe^{r\tau} / x_s)}{\sigma \sqrt{\tau}} - \frac{\sigma \sqrt{\tau}}{2} \right ]$

, , $\sigma -$ .

, :

$z = \frac{(s-y)}{ \sigma \sqrt{\tau}}; \qquad s = z\sigma \sqrt{\tau} + y \qquad$ $z(\ln x_s) = \frac{\ln x_s - y}{\sigma \sqrt{\tau}} =: \gamma \text{ - }$ $dz = \left (\frac{(s-y)}{2 \sigma \sqrt{\tau}} \right )' ds \Rightarrow dz = \frac{ds}{\sigma \sqrt{\tau}} \Rightarrow ds = \sigma \sqrt{\tau}dz$

$U(y, \tau) =\int_{\gamma }^{+\infty}\left (e^{(1-\alpha)(\sqrt{\tau} \sigma z + y)} - x_s e^{-\alpha(y + \sqrt{\tau}\sigma z)} \right ) \frac{e^{-\frac{z^2}{2}}}{\sigma \sqrt{2 \pi \tau}} \sqrt{\tau }\sigma dz =$ $\frac{1}{\sqrt{2 \pi }} \int_{\gamma }^{+\infty}\left (e^{(1-\alpha)(\sqrt{\tau} \sigma z + y) -\frac{z^2}{2} } - x_s e^{-\alpha(y + \sqrt{\tau}\sigma z)-\frac{z^2}{2}} \right ) dz$

$U(y, \tau) =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2 \pi }}\left [ \int_{\gamma }^{+\infty}e^{(1-\alpha)(\sqrt{\tau} \sigma z + y)-\frac{z^2}{2}} dz -\int_{\gamma }^{+\infty} x_s e^{-\alpha(y + \sqrt{\tau}\sigma z)-\frac{z^2}{2}} dz \right ]$

, .

, , , , $e^{-\frac{v^2}{2}}$ , .

, $-\infty$ , . , . :

$\ frac {1} {\ sqrt {2 \ pi}} \ int _ {\ gamma} ^ {+ \ infty} e ^ {- \ frac {z ^ 2} {2}} dz = F (- \ gamma) \ qquad (*)$

, , . , , , . :

, $d_1 = - \ kiri (\ gamma - \ sigma \ sqrt {\ tau} (1- \ alpha) \ kanan)$ , $d_2 = - \ kiri (\ gamma + \ alpha \ sigma \ sqrt {\ tau} \ kanan)$ , *.

, , . , :

$\ gamma = \ frac {\ ln x_s - y} {\ sigma \ sqrt {\ tau}}; \ qquad \ alpha = - \ frac {R} {\ sigma ^ 2}; \ qquad R = r - \ frac {\ sigma ^ 2} {2}; \ qquad y = \ ln x.$

$d_1 = \ frac {\ ln (xe ^ {r \ tau} / x_s)} {\ sigma \ sqrt {\ tau}} + \ frac {\ sigma \ sqrt {\ tau}} {2}; \ qquad d_2 = \ frac {\ ln (xe ^ {r \ tau} / x_s)} {\ sigma \ sqrt {\ tau}} - \ frac {\ sigma \ sqrt {\ tau}} {2}.$

, . $C (e ^ y, \ tau)$ , , $C (e ^ y, \ tau) = e ^ {\ alpha y + \ beta \ tau} \ cdot U (y, \ tau)$ , , ** $e ^ {\ alpha y + \ beta \ tau}$ .

. , $e ^ {\ alpha y + \ beta \ tau} \ cdot e ^ {y (1- \ alpha) + \ frac {1} {2} \ sigma ^ 2 \ tau (1- \ alpha) ^ 2}$ , $e ^ {\ alpha y + \ beta \ tau} \ cdot e ^ {{\ alpha y + a ^ 2 \ sigma ^ 2 \ tau / 2}}$ $e ^ {- r \ tau}$ . , :

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Pilihan matematika atau model Black-Scholes

Konsep dasar

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